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Tuesday 27 December 2011

The Adventures of Tintin

The Adventures of Tintin (Les Aventures de Tintin) is a series of classic comic books created by Belgian artist Georges Remi (1907–1983), who wrote under the pen name of Hergé. The series is one of the most popular European comics of the 20th century, with translations published in more than 50 languages and more  than 200 million copies of the books sold to date.
The series first appeared in French in Le Petit Vingtième, a children's supplement to the Belgian newspaper Le XXe Siècle on 10 January 1929. The success of the series saw the serialised strips published in Belgium's leading newspaper Le Soir, collected into a series of twenty-four albums, spun into a successful Tintin magazine, and adapted for film, radio, television and theatre.
Set during a largely realistic 20th century, the hero of the series is Tintin, a young Belgian reporter. He is aided in his adventures by his faithful fox terrier dog Snowy (Milou in French). Later, popular additions to the cast included the brash and cynical Captain Haddock, the highly intelligent but hearing-impaired Professor Calculus (Professeur Tournesol) and other supporting characters such as the incompetent detectives Thomson and Thompson (Dupont et Dupond). Hergé himself features in several of the comics as a background character, as do his assistants in some instances.
The comic strip series has long been admired for its clean, expressive drawings in Hergé's signature ligne claire style.Its engaging, well-researched plots straddle a variety of genres: swashbuckling adventures with elements of fantasy, mysteries, political thrillers, and science fiction. The stories within the Tintin series always feature slapstick humour, offset in later albums by dashes of sophisticated satire and political/cultural commentary.



Thursday 15 December 2011

Smoke Photography Tips

photos of smoke
When you look at smoke photos you might think that it is impossible to take such shots but it’s actually not that hard. You just need to be patient because the ratio of good images to bad ones is pretty low.
You will need a proper setup to photograph smoke. This form of photography is done indoors so it is a good way to kill time when you’re stuck inside. It doesn’t only kill time, it can be pretty fulfilling at the same time. Do not let the setup scare you away because you will only need cheap household products. The only expensive equipment is your camera and flash. In this tutorial we will try to make smoke photography simple for you.
There is no correct or incorrect way of photographing smoke. In other words, there is no right or wrong way to photograph a smoke trail. I, myself, try to experiment with my smoke. As I say in most of my articles, the best thing is to grab your camera and experiment. Experimenting will give you that perfect picture, that perfect angle and that perfect lighting.
smoke photography
tips for capturing smoke photos
incense smoke photography

Tuesday 29 November 2011

Top 10 Languages Spoken In The World...


10. French
Number of speakers: 129 million
Often called the most romantic language in the world, French is spoken in tons of countries, including Belgium, Canada, Rwanda, Cameroon, and Haiti. Oh, and France too. We're actually very lucky that French is so popular, because without it, we might have been stuck with Dutch Toast, Dutch Fries, and Dutch kissing (ew! ).
To say "hello" in French, say "Bonjour" (bone-JOOR).
9. Malay-Indonesian Number of speakers: 159 million
Malay-Indonesian is spoken - surprise - in Malaysia and Indonesia. Actually, we kinda fudged the numbers on this one because there are many dialects of Malay, The most popular of which is Indonesian. But they're all pretty much based on the same root language, which makes it the ninth most-spoken in the world. Indonesia is a fascinating place; a nation made up of over 13,000 islands it is the sixth most populated country in the world. Malaysia borders on two of the larger parts of Indonesia (including the island of Borneo), and is mostly known for its capital city of Kuala Lumpur.
To say "hello" in Indonesian, say "Selamat pagi" (se-LA-maht PA-gee).
8. Portuguese Number of speakers: 191 million
Think of Portuguese as the little language that could. In the 12th Century, Portugal won its independence from Spain and expanded all over the world with the he lp of its famous explorers like Vasco da Gama and Prince Henry the Navigator. (Good thing Henry became a navigator . . . could you imagine if a guy named "Prince Henry the Navigator" became a florist?) Because Portugal got in so early on the exploring game, the language established itself all over the world, especially in Brazil (where it's the national language), Macau, Angola, Venezuela, and Mozambique.
To say "hello" in Portuguese, say "Bom dia" (bohn DEE-ah).
7. Bengali
Number of speakers: 211 million
In Bangladesh, a country of 120+ million people, just about everybody speaks Bengali. And because Bangladesh is virtually surrounded by India (where the population is growing so fast, just breathing the air can get you pregnant), the number of Bengali speakers in the world is much higher than most people would expect.
To say "hello" in Bengali, say "Ei Je" (EYE-jay).
6. Arabic
Number of speakers: 246 million
Arabic, one of the world's oldest languages, is spoken in the Middle East, with speakers found in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Egypt. Furthermore, because Arabic is the language of the Koran, millions of Moslems in other countries speak Arabic as well. So many people have a working knowledge of Arabic, in fact, that in 1974 it was made the sixth official language of the United Nations.
To say "hello" in Arabic, say "Al salaam a'alaykum" (Ahl sah-LAHM ah ah-LAY-koom).

5. Russian
Number of speakers: 277 million
Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin, and Yakov Smirnoff are among the millions of Russian speakers out there. Sure, we used to think of them as our Commie enemies. Now we think of them as our Commie friends. One of the six languages in the UN, Russian is spoken not only in the Mother Country, but also in Belarus, Kazakhst an, and the U.S. (to name just a few places).
To say "hello" in Russian, say "Zdravstvuite" (ZDRAST-vet-yah).

4. Spanish
Number of speakers: 392 million
Aside from all of those kids who take it in high school, Spanish is spoken in just about every South American and Central American country, not to mention Spain, Cuba, and the U.S. There is a particular interest in Spanish in the U.S., as many English words are borrowed from the language, including: tornado, bonanza, patio, quesadilla, enchilada, and taco grande supreme.
To say "hello" in Spanish, say "Hola" (OH-la).

3. Hindustani 
Number of speakers: 497 million
Hindustani is the primary language of India's crowded population, and it encompasses a huge number of dialects (of which the most commonly spoken is Hindi). While many predict that the population of India will soon surpass that of China, the prominence of English in India prevents Hindustani from surpassing the most popular language in the world. If you're interested in learning a little Hindi, there's a very easy way: rent an Indian movie. The film industry in India is the most prolific in the world, making thousands of action/romance/musicals every year.
To say "hello" in Hindustani, say "Namaste" (Nah-MAH-stay).

2. English
Number of speakers: 508 million
While English doesn't have the most speakers, it is the official language of more countries than any other language. Its speakers hail from all around the world, including the U.S., Australia, England, Zimbabwe, the Caribbean, Hong Kong, South Africa, and Canada. We'd tell you more about English, but you probably feel pretty comfortable with the language already. Let's just move on to the most popular language in the world.
To say "hello" in English, say "What's up, freak?" (watz-UP-freek).

1. Mandarin
Number of speakers: 1 billion+
Surprise, surprise, the most widely spoken language on the planet is based in the most populated country on the planet, China. Beating second-place English by a 2 to 1 ratio, but don't let that lull you into thinking that Mandarin is easy to learn. Speaking Mandarin can be really tough, because each word can be pronounced in four ways (or "tones"), and a beginner will invariably have trouble distinguishing one tone from another. But if over a billion people could do it, so could you. Try saying hello!
To say "hello" in Mandarin, say "Ni hao" (Nee HaOW).

Carbonara Recipe





Ingredients (serves 4)

  • 2 teaspoons olive oil
  • 200g sliced pancetta, roughly chopped
  • 3 garlic cloves, crushed
  • 2 egg yolks (at room temperature)
  • 2 eggs (at room temperature)
  • 1/2 cup thickened cream
  • 75g parmesan cheese, finely grated

Method

  1. Heat oil in a large, non-stick frying pan over medium heat. Add pancetta and garlic. Cook, stirring, for 5 minutes or until pancetta is crisp. Drain on paper towel.
  2. Whisk egg yolks, eggs, cream and three-quarters of the parmesan together in a bowl. Season with salt and pepper.
  3. Add egg mixture and pancetta mixture to pasta. Season with salt and pepper. Toss over low heat until well combined. Serve with remaining parmesan.

Tuesday 22 November 2011

ORGANISATION NON GOUVERNEMENTALE (ONG)


ORGANISATION NON GOUVERNEMENTALE


Organisation non gouvernementale: ce terme désigne des organisations qui ne relèvent pas directement ou structurellement d'un gouvernement. Elles doivent être sans but lucratif. Le Conseil économique et social de l'Organisation des Nations unies en donne la définition suivante: «Sera considérée comme organisation nongouvernementale toute organisation dont la constitution ne résulte pas d'un accord intergouvernemental y compris les organisations qui acceptent des membres désignés par les autoritégouvernementales, pourvu que de tels membres ne nuisent pas à la libre expression des organisations.» 

Ces organisations peuvent représenter la société civile ou des groupes spécifiques de celle-ci. Elles peuvent critiquer les gouvernements des pays d'où elles proviennent; elles peuvent aussi compléter ou participer aux travaux d'élaboration de projets ou de résolutions. Au moment du vote, elles n'ont cependant pas de pouvoirs décisionnels. 

Wednesday 16 November 2011

Loy Kratong Festival (งานเทศกาลลอยกระทง )

Although not an official public holiday, Loy Kratong is one of the most popular and romantic of Thailand's traditional festivals. The festival is held on the night of the 12th full moon, which lands some time in November. The festival is held to pay homage to the goddess of rivers and waterways, Mae Nam.Loy literally translates to "float", while Kratong is the Thai word for a sort of tray made out of banana leaves. Loy Kratong is celebrated by floating elaborate kratongs decorated with flowers, candles and incense on just about any waterway in the kingdom.
The romance is provided by a legend about the origins of the festival in 13th century Sukhothai. According to the story, Nang Nopamas, a royal consort of King Ramkhamhaeng (the founder of Sukhothai), made the first kratong as an offering to Mae Nam. She set it afloat on one of the canals of the palace so that it would drift past her lover the king. The king was delighted with the creation, and thus was the origins of the saying that if two lovers set a kratong adrift and it stays afloat until out of sight, their love will last forever.

Kratongs
Fancy kratongs on sale at a Chiang Mai market.


Kratong Parts
Kratongs as well as the supplies to make them can be purchased in the markets.
















Where to Celebrate Loy Kratong

Loy Kratong Queen
One of the many 'queens' of the Loy Kratong festival in Chiang Mai.


Loy Kratong is celebrated throughout Thailand. In Bangkok, most people flock to the banks of the Chao Phraya river to float their kratongs, although large restaurants with ponds are also popular. Note that these restaurants as well as those on the banks of the river, are often fully booked weeks in advance. You should be sure to make reservations well in advance if you want to celebrate Loy Kratong at these places.
Kratongs
Kratongs come in many shapes and sizes.
The "birthplace" of the Thai celebration of Loy Kratong -- Sukhothai -- puts on an elaborate sound and light show. It's quite impressive, but rather more for package tourists than independent travellers.
The nearly week-long Loy Kratong celebrations held in Chiang Mai are by far the most interesting. Several streets in the old city are closed to traffic at night for a huge market featuring several stage shows. On the night of Loy Kratong, there's a parade of giant kratongs along with contestants for the title of Miss Nopamas. The procession starts at the Tapae Gate and ends at the river-side where the giant kratongs are floated.
Loy Kratong in Chiang Mai has the added feature of a parallel festival called Yi Peng. Yi Peng is celebrated by launching hot air balloons made of rice paper into the night sky. The night sky is literally filled with thousands of these bright lights shining like a moving river of stars. It's a truly magical sight that can't really be captured in a picture.
Loy Kratong in Chiang Mai has become so popular that the hotels areound the city are fully booked a month or more in advance. If you want to celebrate the festival in Chiang Mai, plan ahead and book your hotel well in advance. Note that Loy Kratong is celebrated on a full moon night, so the date will change from year to year.

SOS ย่อมาจากคำว่า

SOS ย่อมาจากคำว่าอะไร เหตุใดจึงใช้เวลาขอความช่วยเหลือ 

สัญญาณ SOS มีที่มาจากการกดรหัสมอร์ส ซึ่งบัญญัติตั้งแต่ปีค.ศ.1908 ให้เป็นสัญญาณแสดงภัยพิบัติสากล หลังจากศึกษาแล้วว่า SOS เป็นสัญญาณที่กดง่าย เห็นปุ๊บรู้ปั๊บ เพียงกดแค่ 3 จุด ขีด 3 ขีด หรือ จุด 3 จุดเท่านั้น เป็นอันเข้าใจกันทันที 

หลายคนมักเข้าใจว่า SOS ย่อมาจาก Save Our Souls (เซฟ อาวเวอร์ โซลส์) หมายถึงช่วยปกปักรักษาดวงวิญญาณของเรา แต่จริงๆแล้วมีที่มาจากรหัสมอร์สที่กล่าวถึงข้างต้น



Friday 16 September 2011

Antoine de Saint-Exupery




Saint-Exupery was born in Lyon in 1900. A lover of danger, excitement and adventure he had a great wish to join the naval service but unfortunately he failed the exam that he had to take to join it. Disappointed he thought of alternatives, then found it in avaition. During his military service he learned to fly planes. In those days aviation was still in its developmental stage and was highly dangerous, reasons for its appeal to Saint-Exupery.

After his military service, he presented himself to the director of an airline company and expressed to him his desire to become a pilot. but he was first required to be a mechanic.

Saint-Exupery worked to become a mechanic. In 1927, he finally reached his goal. He was the pilot of a formation. He completed dangerous missions over the Mediterranean, over the Sahara. He had many accidents over the middle of the desert. Later, he was named the director of his own aviation company in South America. There also, he accomplished many dangerous missions over the Andes.

For Saint-Exupery, flying wasn't just piloting an airplane. It was also meditating, reflecting. During his missions, Saint-Exupery thought deeply about solitude, friendship, the meaning of life, the human condition, and liberty. He published his reflections. His books had immediate success.

Unfortunately, the aviation company for which Saint-Exupery worked was having serious financial problems. Saint-Exupery had to quit the company. He became a journalist. He went to Spain, Russia, and Germany. He flew when he could.

In 1939 when France went to war with Germany Saint-Exupery enlisted in the army, but after France was occupied by Hitler's troops, he left for the United States and continued to write. He published his most celebrated book The Little Prince in New York.

In 1942, American troops landed in North Africa. Saint-Exupery decided to join the American army. At age 42, he volunteered to be a pilot. but he was told he was too old, but still he persisted and was accepted and given an airplane. He accomplished many missions over occupied France.

On the 31st of July, 1944, Saint-Exupery left for his last mission. His airplane was destroyed by German airplanes over the Mediterranean.

Thursday 15 September 2011

Five Degrees That Are In Demand

 

Degree #1 - Master's in Business Administration (MBA)

With courses that include business management and business operations, an MBA can be distinct in its career flexibility. As one example, the Yale School of Management MBA Career Report said that its 2008 graduates accepted job offers in financial services, at non-profits, with consulting firms, in the media and entertainment field, and with the government, among other areas.
Hot Factor: While hiring of MBA grads lowered during the recession, the hiring stagnation is over, and "...more business school graduates are getting jobs," according to a March 2011 U.S. News and World report article. Another hot factor: The potential for pay...which at the mid-career mark is $109,000 for MBA grads, according to a Forbes May 2010 article, "Best Master's Degrees For Jobs".




Degree#2 - Associate's in Paralegal Studies

An associate's degree in paralegal studies could help you pursue a career as a lawyer's right-hand man or woman. Paralegal courses might require in-class legal research and practice in drafting legal documents, according to the College Board, an organization that administers academic aptitude tests like the SAT.
Hot Factor: This degree is a common credential for paralegals, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, which projects employment of paralegals to grow by 28 percent between 2008 and 2018. The Department also notes that paralegals have an average annual salary of $49,640, according to May 2010 statistics.



Degree #3 - Bachelor's in Accounting

The curriculum in this hot degree could prepare grads to pursue number-crunching accountant career opportunities. Courses generally cover basic accounting concepts, preparing financial statements, and research of real-life cases, according to the College Board.
Hot Factor: The numbers don't lie. The Department of Labor projects 22 percent growth in accounting careers between 2008 and 2018. Career opportunities can include everything from working for companies or individual clients, according to the Department, which notes that the average annual salary for accountants was $68,960 in May 2010.












Degree #4 - Associate's in Dental Assisting

Dental assisting associate's degree programs could prepare students to pursue dental assistant career opportunities. Programs generally cover relevant topics such as proper brushing and flossing techniques, how to take x-rays, medical record keeping, and more, according to the College Board.
Hot Factor: As long as people have teeth, there will be a need for dental assistants. In fact, dental assistant positions are projected to grow a hefty 35.75 percent between 2008 and 2018, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. What's more? The Department also notes dental assistants have an average annual salary of $34,140, as of May 2010.





Degree #5 - Bachelor's in Human Resources

A bachelor's in human resources is a great start to pursuing a career in the "people-person" friendly industry of human resources. Human resources programs will likely include courses in organizational behavior, psychology, and the sociology of work, according to the College Board.
Hot Factor: Companies big and small need human resources managers and/or assistants. The U.S. Department of Labor notes that between 2008 and 2018, human resources jobs should climb 22 percent, a gain of 197,400 jobs. HR assistants have an average annual salary of $37,900, while HR mangers average at $108,600, according to May 2010 statistics from the Department.


Tuesday 13 September 2011

ปาลาวัน หมู่เกาะในฟิลิปปินส์ (Palawan of the Philippines)


 
     ปาลาวัน เป็นหมู่เกาะของที่ได้ชื่อว่าสวยที่สุดในฟิลิปปินส์ มีชื่อเสียงและเป็นที่ชื่นชอบของบรรดานักท่องเที่ยวธรรมชาติทั่วโลก ท้องทะเลที่สวยงาม บนหาดทรายขาวสะอาดเป็นเอกลักษณ์ และยังเป็นเป้าหมายหลักของนักดำน้ำ เพื่อดูปะการังและสัตว์ต่างๆ ใต้ท้องทะเลอีกด้วย บนเกาะปาลาวันมีแหล่งท่องเที่ยวมากมายหลายพื้นที่ แต่ละพื้นที่ก็จะมีรีสอร์ท ทะเลทรายและกิจกรรมต่างๆ ให้เข้าร่วมแต่กต่างกันออกไปพื้นที่ที่เป็นที่ินิยมของนักท่องเที่ยวต่างๆ
     ปาลาวัน เป็นจุดศูนย์กลางของนักเดินทาง ที่ต้องการมาเที่ยวปาลาวันและหลังจากนั้นก็สามารถมุ่งหน้าไปยังจุดหมายปลายทางต่างๆ ที่ต้องการไม่ว่าจะเป็นทางเหนือหรือทางใต้ของเกาะ
          

Sunday 21 August 2011

Top 10 Most Spoken Languages In The World

10- French


Number of speakers: 129 million
Often called the most romantic language in the world, French is spoken in tons of countries, including Belgium, Canada, Rwanda, Cameroon, and Haiti. Oh, and France too. We’re actually very lucky that French is so popular, because without it, we might have been stuck with Dutch Toast, Dutch Fries, and Dutch kissing (ew!).
To say “hello” in French, say “Bonjour” 

9- Malay (Indonesian)

Number of speakers: 159 million
Malay-Indonesian is spoken – surprise – in Malaysia and Indonesia. Actually, we kinda fudged the numbers on this one because there are many dialects of Malay, the most popular of which is Indonesian. But they’re all pretty much based on the same root language, which makes it the ninth most-spoken in the world.
Indonesia is a fascinating place; a nation made up of over 13,000 islands it is the sixth most populated country in the world. Malaysia borders on two of the larger parts of Indonesia (including the island of Borneo), and is mostly known for its capital city of Kuala Lumpur.
To say “hello” in Indonesian, say “Selamat pagi”


8- Portuguese



Number of speakers: 191 million
Think of Portuguese as the little language that could. In the 12th Century, Portugal won its independence from Spain and expanded all over the world with the help of its famous explorers like Vasco da Gama and Prince Henry the Navigator. (Good thing Henry became a navigator . . . could you imagine if a guy named “Prince Henry the Navigator” became a florist?) Because Portugal got in so early on the exploring game, the language established itself all over the world, especially in Brazil (where it’s the national language), Macau, Angola, Venezuela, and Mozambique.
To say “hello” in Portuguese, say “Bom dia” (bohn DEE-ah).



7- Bengali



Number of speakers: 211 million
In Bangladesh, a country of 120+ million people, just about everybody speaks Bengali. And because Bangladesh is virtually surrounded by India (where the population is growing so fast, just breathing the air can get you pregnant), the number of Bengali speakers in the world is much higher than most people would expect.
To say “hello” in Bengali, say “Ei Je” (EYE-jay).


6- Arabic



Number of speakers: 246 million
Arabic, one of the world’s oldest languages, is spoken in the Middle East, with speakers found in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Egypt. Furthermore, because Arabic is the language of the Koran, millions of Moslems in other countries speak Arabic as well. So many people have a working knowledge of Arabic, in fact, that in 1974 it was made the sixth official language of the United Nations.
To say “hello” in Arabic, say “Al salaam a’alaykum” (Ahl sah-LAHM ah ah-LAY-koom).


5- Russian



Number of speakers: 277 million
Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin, and Yakov Smirnoff are among the millions of Russian speakers out there. Sure, we used to think of them as our Commie enemies. Now we think of them as our Commie friends. One of the six languages in the UN, Russian is spoken not only in the Mother Country, but also in Belarus, Kazakhstan, and the U.S. (to name just a few places).
To say “hello” in Russian, say “Zdravstvuite” (ZDRAST-vet-yah).


4- Spanish


Number of speakers: 392 million
Aside from all of those kids who take it in high school, Spanish is spoken in just about every South American and Central American country, not to mention Spain, Cuba, and the U.S. There is a particular interest in Spanish in the U.S., as many English words are borrowed from the language, including: tornado, bonanza, patio, quesadilla, enchilada, and taco grande supreme.
To say “hello” in Spanish, say “Hola” (OH-la).


3- Hindustani


Number of speakers: 497 million
Hindustani is the primary language of India’s crowded population, and it encompasses a huge number of dialects (of which the most commonly spoken is Hindi). While many predict that the population of India will soon surpass that of China, the prominence of English in India prevents Hindustani from surpassing the most popular language in the world. If you’re interested in learning a little Hindi, there’s a very easy way: rent an Indian movie. The film industry in India is the most prolific in the world, making thousands of action/romance/musicals every year.
To say “hello” in Hindustani, say “Namaste” (Nah-MAH-stay).


2- English



Number of speakers: 508 million
While English doesn’t have the most speakers, it is the official language of more countries than any other language. Its speakers hail from all around the world, including New Zealand, the U.S., Australia, England, Zimbabwe, the Caribbean, Hong Kong, South Africa, and Canada. We’d tell you more about English, but you probably feel pretty comfortable with the language already. Let’s just move on to the most popular language in the world.
To say “hello” in English, say “What’s up, freak?” (watz-UP-freek).

1- Mandarin


Number of speakers: 1 billion+
Surprise, surprise, the most widely spoken language on the planet is based in the most populated country on the planet. Beating second-place English by a 2 to 1 ratio, but don’t let that lull you into thinking that Mandarin is easy to learn. Speaking Mandarin can be really tough, because each word can be pronounced in four ways (or “tones”), and a beginner will invariably have trouble distinguishing one tone from another. But if over a billion people could do it, so could you. Try saying hello!
To say “hello” in Mandarin, say “Ni hao” (Nee HaOW).

Tuesday 16 August 2011

Major Religions of the World

  1. Christianity: 2.1 billion
  2. Islam: 1.5 billion
  3. Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist: 1.1 billion
  4. Hinduism: 900 million
  5. Chinese traditional religion: 394 million
  6. Buddhism: 376 million
  7. primal-indigenous: 300 million
  8. African Traditional & Diasporic: 100 million
  9. Sikhism: 23 million
  10. Juche: 19 million
  11. Spiritism: 15 million
  12. Judaism: 14 million
  13. Baha'i: 7 million
  14. Jainism: 4.2 million
  15. Shinto: 4 million
  16. Cao Dai: 4 million
  17. Zoroastrianism: 2.6 million
  18. Tenrikyo: 2 million
  19. Neo-Paganism: 1 million
  20. Unitarian-Universalism: 800 thousand
  21. Rastafarianism: 600 thousand
  22. Scientology: 500 thousand

Introduction
The adherent counts presented in the list above are current estimates of the number of people who have at least a minimal level of self-identification as adherents of the religion. Levels of participation vary within all groups. These numbers tend toward the high end of reasonable worldwide estimates. Valid arguments can be made for different figures, but if the same criteria are used for all groups, the relative order should be the same. Further details and sources are available below and in the Adherents.com main database.
A major source for these estimates is the detailed country-by-country analysis done by David B. Barrett's religious statistics organization, whose data are published in the Encyclopedia Britannica (including annual updates and yearbooks) and also in the World Christian Encyclopedia (the latest edition of which - published in 2001 - has been consulted). Hundreds of additional sources providing more thorough and detailed research about individual religious groups have also been consulted.
This listing is not a comprehensive list of all religions, only the "major" ones (as defined below). There are distinct religions other than the ones listed above. But this list accounts for the religions of over 98% of the world's population. Below are listed some religions which are not in this listing (Mandeans, PL Kyodan, Ch'ondogyo, Vodoun, New Age, Seicho-No-Ie, Falun Dafa/Falun Gong, Taoism, Roma), along with explanations for why they do not qualify as "major world religions" on this list.
This world religions listing is derived from the statistics data in the Adherents.com database. The list was created by the same people who collected and organized this database, in consultation with university professors of comparative religions and scholars from different religions. We invite additional input. The Adherents.com collection of religious adherent statistics now has over 43,000 adherent statistic citations, for over 4,300 different faith groups, covering all countries of the world. This is not an absolutely exhaustive compilation of all such data, but it is by far the largest compilation available on the Internet. Various academic researchers and religious representatives regularly share documented adherent statistics with Adherents.com so that their information can be available in a centralized database.

 

The Classical World Religions List

There are twelve classical world religions. This is the list of religions described most often in surveys of the subject, and studied in World Religion classes (some of them more for historical rather than contemporary reasons):
  • Baha'i
  • Buddhism
  • Christianity
  • Confucianism
  • Hinduism
  • Islam
  • Jainism
  • Judaism
  • Shinto
  • Sikhism
  • Taoism
  • Zoroastrianism
The "World's Major Religions" list published in the New York Public Library Student's Desk Reference is typical of world religion lists which are functionally-oriented, yet still strongly classical (New York: Prentice Hall, 1993; pg. 271):
  • Baha'i
  • Buddhism
  • Confucianism
  • Hinduism
  • Islam
  • Judaism
  • Orthodox Eastern Church
  • Protestantism
  • Catholicism
  • Shinto
  • Taoism
In modern Western thought, the first writers to divide the world into "world religions" were Christians. Originally, three religions were recognized: Christians, Jews and pagans (i.e., everybody else).

After many centuries, with the increased Western awareness of Eastern history and philosophy, and the development of Islam, other religions were added to the list. Many Far Eastern ways of thought, in fact, were given the status of "world religion" while equally advanced religious cultures in technologically less developed or pre-literate societies (such as in Australia, Africa, South America, and Polynesia) were grouped together as pagans or "animists," regardless of their actual theology. It's true that by the standards applied at the time, the Far Eastern religions Westerners encountered were often in a different category altogether than the religions they classified as pagan. One can not directly compare, for example, the local beliefs of the Polynesian islands of Kiribati during the 1500s to the organizational, political, literary and philosophical sophistication of Chinese Taoism during the same period. But one could certainly question whether Japanese Shintoism, as an official "world religion", was theologically or spiritually more "advanced" than African Yoruba religion, which was classified simply as animism or paganism.

During the 1800s comparative religion scholars increasingly recognized Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism as the most significant "world religions." Even today, these are considered the "Big Five" and are the religions most likely to be covered in world religion books.

Five smaller or more localized religions/philosophies brought the list of world religions to ten: Confucianism, Taoism, Jainism, Shinto and Zoroastrianism.

Beginning around 1900 comparative religion writers in England began to take note of the Sikhs which had begun to immigrate there from India (part of the British Empire at the time). Sikhs, if mentioned at all, had been classified as a sect of Hinduism during the first three hundred years of their history. But after the influential British writers began to classify Sikhism as a distinct, major world religion, the rest of the world soon followed their example.

Baha'is are the most recent entrant to the "Classical" list. The religion is only about 150 years old. On their official website, Baha'is claim 5 million adherents worldwide, established in 235 countries and territories throughout the world. While most comparative religion textbooks produced during this century either ignore them or group them as a Muslim sect, the most recent books give them separate status and often their own chapter. Baha'is have achieved this status partially through their worldwide geographical spread and increasing numbers, and partially by constantly insisting that they are indeed the "newest world religion."

The classical set of twelve is not necessarily the most accurate reflection of the present, real-world religious situation. (This fact is briefly addressed below.) We agree with the prominent comparative religion scholar Irving Hexham (an Evangelical Christian, and a professor at the University of Calgary) who wrote:
...there is an overemphasis on certain narrowly defined academic traditions in Religious Studies to the neglect of studies dealing with religion as it actually occurs in the world. In other words academics are happy to study other academics regardless of what is actually happening in everyday life. Thus, for example... I believe that the founder of [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints], Joseph Smith, is a far more influential figure and deserves as much attention as the father of modern theology, Freidrich Schleiermacher, yet current textbooks and course offerings invariably mention Schleiermacher but rarely pay any attention to Joseph Smith. By recognizing the importance of living religions, popular piety and sociological studies I hope more balance will enter Religious Studies. [Source: Irving Hexham, Concise Dictionary of Religion, 1998.]


The Adherents.com "Major Religions" list presented on this web page differs from classical lists because it draws more from an extremely large body of contemporary affiliation data, rather than relying heavily on the lists and texts of past commentators (Hudson Smith, Noss, Barrett, etc.).

There are many distinct religions or religious movements which have more adherents than some of the classical world religions, but which are not part of the classical list for various reasons. These reasons include:
  • the religions which are not included on the classical list are too new (Scientology, Neo-Paganism)
  • they are concentrated in only one country (Cao Dai, Ch'ondogyo, Tenrikyo)
  • they lack identifiable central organizations or unifying scriptural literature (Neo-Paganism, New Age, Spiritism)
  • their adherents primarily name a different, more established traditional religion as their religious preference (most practitioners of Vodoun are nominal Catholics, practitioners of New Age religions are often nominally Protestant, Catholic or Jewish)
  • their religion is still strongly associated with a major religion from which it arose, but no longer wishes to be an official part of (Tenrikyo and many other Japanese New Religious Movements, as well as many religions emerging from Indian/Hindu environments)

Tuesday 2 August 2011

Coral Reef Bleaching

Coral reef bleaching, the whitening of diverse invertebrate taxa, results from the loss of symbiotic zooxantheallae and/or a reduction in photosynthetic pigment concentrations in zooxanthellae residing within scleractinian corals. Coral reef bleaching is caused by various anthropogenic and natural variations in the reef environment including sea temperature, solar irradiance, sedimentation, xenobiotics, subaerial exposure, inorganic nutrients, freshwater dilution, and epizootics. Coral bleaching events have been increasing in both frequency and extent worldwide in the past 20 years. Global climate change may play a role in the increase in coral bleaching events, and could cause the destruction of major reef tracts and the extinction of many coral species.


Coral reef bleaching


Bleaching, or the paling of zooxanthellate invertebrates, occurs when (i) the densities of zooxanthellae decline and / or (ii) the concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall (Kleppel et al. 1989). Most reef-building corals normally contain around 1-5 x 106 zooxanthellae cm-2 of live surface tissue and 2-10 pg of chlorophyll a per zooxanthella. When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthella may lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments (Glynn 1996). The pale appearance of bleached scleractinian corals and hydrocorals is due to the cnidarian’s calcareous skeleton showing through the translucent tissues (that are nearly devoid of pigmented zooxanthellae).  If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it decreases in time, the affected corals usually regain their symbiotic algae within several weeks or a few months. If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae populations do not recover, the coral host eventually dies .  Three hypotheses have been advanced to explain the cellular mechanism of bleaching, and all are based on extreme sea temperatures as one of the causative factors. High temperature and irradiance stressors have been implicated in the disruption of enzyme systems in zooxanthellae that offer protection against oxygen toxicity. Photosynthesis pathways in zooxanthallae are impaired at temperatures above 30 degrees C, this effect could activate the disassociation of coral / algal symbiosis. Low- or high-temperature shocks results in zooxanthellae low as a result of cell adhesion dysfunction. This involves the detachment of cnidarian endodermal cells with their zooxanthellae and the eventual expulsion of both cell types.


It has been hypothesized that bleaching is an adaptive mechanism which allows the coral to be repopulated with a different type of zooxanthellae, possibly conferring greater stress resistance. Different strains of zooxanthellae exist both between and within different species of coral hosts, and the different strains of algae show varied physiological responses to both temperature and irradiance exposure. The coral / algal association may have the scope to adapt within a coral’s lifetime. Such adaptations could be either genetic or phenotypic.


Ecological causes of coral bleaching


As coral reef bleaching is a general response to stress, it can be induced by a variety of factors, alone or in combination. It is therefore difficult to unequivocally identify the causes for bleaching events. The following stressors have been implicated in coral reef bleaching events. 


Temperature


Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin, and anomalously low and high sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching. Bleaching events occur during sudden temperature drops accompanying intense upwelling episodes, (-3 degrees C to –5 degrees C for 5-10 days), seasonal cold-air outbreaks. Bleaching is much more frequently reported from elevated se water temperature. A small positive anomaly of 1-2 degrees C for 5-10 weeks during the summer season will usually induce bleaching. 


Spatial and temporal range of coral reef bleaching
 
Mass coral moralities in coral reef ecosystems have been reported in all major reef provinces since the 1870s. The frequency and scale of bleaching disturbances has increased dramatically since the late 70’s. This is possibly due to more observers and a greater interest in reporting in recent years. More than 60 coral reef bleaching events out of 105 mass coral moralities were reported between 1979-1990, compared with only three bleaching events among 63 mass coral moralities recorded during the preceding 103 years. 
Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic, eastern Pacific, central and western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) experienced some degree of coral bleaching and mortality during the 1980s.   
Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral moralities were related to non-thermal disturbances such as storms, aerial exposures during extreme low tides, and Acanthaster outbreaks. Coral bleaching accompanied some of the mortality events prior to the 1980s during periods of elevated sea water temperature, but these disturbances were geographically isolated and restricted to particular reefs zones. In contrast, many of the coral bleaching events observed in the 1980s occurred over large geographic regions and at all depths. 
Most of the coral reef bleaching events of the 1980s occurred during years of large-scale ENSO activity.